I am indebted to many people for inspiring my appreciation of Uyghur life and culture. My interest in Uyghur muqam music and song began in 1989 when I was studying Uyghur and doing fieldwork at the Engineering College in Ürümchi. Friends I met there, such as Hairet Rozi, stimulated me to learn more about the muqams. In this dissertation I try to create the book that I would have liked to be able to read in 1989 when I first wanted to understand the muqam tradition and its growing importance as a symbol of Uyghur culture and history.

It was not until 1992 that I had the opportunity to begin seriously researching the muqams in Ürümchi, while living at the Xinjiang Art College (Yishu Xueyuan) and affiliated with the Xinjiang Art Research Institute (Xinjiang Wenhuating Yishu Yanjiusuo). In my research I drew on the expertise of many people, and this dissertation results from their generous collaboration. I offer this dissertation in gratitude for their hospitality and many hours of work with me.

My greatest debt is to Zhou Ji who was responsible for arranging my affiliation with the Art Research Institute, and organizing research opportunities and tutorials at a number of other institutions and scholars around the city. Zhou Ji also taught me much about the history of Uyghur music. I am also very grateful to Qawul Akhun, Ömär Akhun, Shir Mämät, Abdushukur Turdi, Hüsäyn Kerim and Qurban Barat for their teaching, hospitality and contributions to my work on Uyghur music and muqam poetry. Without them, none of this would have been possible.

I could not have had better luck than to end up sharing an apartment at the Xinjiang Art College with Quddus Khojamyarov and his wife Ninela. Quddus was an irrepressible commentator on the muqams, and his interest and ideas about my work helped make me excited and confident about it as well. I also enjoyed the hospitality and guidance of many others who shared their expertise in the muqams with me. I am particularly grateful to Heytäm at the musical instrument factory, Turnisa Salahidin, Wan Tongshu, Yasin Mukhpul, Ömär Imin, Mätruzi Tursun, Sabine Trebinjac and Jämila Qadir.

Many others taught me about Uyghur poetry and history. In particular, Muhämmättursun Bahawuddin and Qutluq at Bulaq, Mirsultan Osmanov, Tursunmuhämmät Sawut, and Farida Hamut were good friends and helped me greatly in my literary research.

Not only were all of the above very generous with their own time, but their family members and friends were also extraordinary in their hospitality and support. I enjoyed many pleasant hours and meals visiting their homes, and am deeply in their debt. Everyone at the Art College went out of their way to make us feel welcome, from President Ghazi Ämät to Li Deming, our downstairs neighbor who had one of the few phones on campus and allowed us to receive occasional calls on it. The students and faculty of the Art College were unfailingly helpful and tolerated my persistent videotaping and other impositions with great good humor. Avarä qildim! Kechürünglar!

Beyond my research on the muqams and Uyghur literature, I had many teachers and friends who helped me. Du Yaxiong and Zhao Talimu taught me much about ethnomusicology in China and helped start me in my research. My teachers of the Uyghur language, Aygül, Mihrai, and Jin Shangyi, were very generous with their time. Iliyar Ablimit always had good stories and jokes. Mähmut Eli and Ablät Abdirishit were great friends who made my time in Ürümchi more pleasant. I met Thomas Hoppe by chance one evening on the campus of the Art College, and we had some very enjoyable conversations. He introduced me to Yasin Mukhpul who introduced me to Ömär Imin, an editor of the muqam texts.

In addition to Zhou Ji, Hüsäyn Kerim, Shir Mämät and their families, Arienne, Yoji and Yumei Dwyer, Keith, Laura and Erica Jensen, Daniel and Susan St. John, Rozi and his son Hairet and daughter Roshängül were all generous friends who let Lynne and I share their lives. John and Nancy Walter's home was always open to me, and Christmas Day 1992 when I showed up out of the snow they let me borrow a video camera after mine had broken down.

Serendipity was joined to generosity in many chance encounters in Ürümchi when people suggested sources and helped me find recordings, books and articles. People in bookstores and publishing houses found and gave me materials that I could not have obtained otherwise. Many I never knew by name, but those I can thank personally are Yüsüpjan Äli Islami, Abduväli Äli, Küräshchan Ömär, and Ablimit, all of whom I met at the Xinjiang People's Press (Shinjang Khälq Näshriyati). I have already mentioned Muhämmättursun Bahawuddin and Mähmut Eli, but I want to thank them again, since the former helped me get a full set of the Bulaq journal that is a key source in this dissertation, and the latter found me editions of historical sources I did not know existed.

Here in the U. S. serendipity was also potent. When Lynne and I returned from Ürümchi, we happened to move into an apartment two doors away from Anwar Yusuf and Gülzirä Abdushukur, who along with Anwar's parents and son Türkel, became our good friends. Anwar lent me important video and audio recordings of the muqams from his collection, and his father taught me about music and folklore from the Kashghar region.

I obtained my research materials through careful searching and much luck. A surprising coincidence for which I should thank the Harvard Academy Scholars Program was that while in Cambridge for an interview with them I happened to find a bookstore that had just begun to sell books from the late Joseph Fletcher's collection. But I am even more grateful for the contributions of librarians known and unknown. Rhonda Stone at the Indiana University Library who helped me get endless interlibrary loans from Kazakstan and places nearer to home. Mary Cargill at the Columbia University Library helped straighten out the difference between Batur Ärshidinov's two entirely different On ikki muqam books. David Zmijewski at the Harvard College Library and Farris Hamarneh at the Library of Congress gave me access to their important collections of Uyghur materials. I am grateful to the librarians at the University of Toledo's Carlson Library who have graciously borne the brunt of my past four years of research. Theodore Levin sent me a copy of his dissertation and has helped me on several points of uncertainty. Walter Feldman, Eleazar Birnbaum, Roger Janelli and Hasan el-Shamy have also been generous with their helpful advice.

My dissertation research and writing was supported by my parents Bob and Becky Light, and by several Indiana University sources: the Richard M. Dorson Dissertation Research Award from the Folklore Department, a grant-in-aid from the Graduate School, and Foreign Language and Area Studies fellowship from the East Asian Studies Center. My deepest thanks to them all.

The stimulation of conferences helped me think through many of the issues in this dissertation and work out initial formulations. I have relied particularly on ideas I presented at the First Annual Central Eurasian Studies Conference, Bloomington, 1994 and the panel "Identity along the Borders of Change" organized by Cathy McAleer at the American Folklore Society meetings in 1995. In 1996 I was fortunate to be able to participate in several nearby conferences that were vital to my thinking: the Resources for Central Asian Studies Workshop in Columbus, Ohio, the conference "Citizenship: Nationality, Transnationality and Education" in Toledo, Ohio, and the conference "Cultural Studies on Eastern Europe and Eurasia" in Ann Arbor, Michigan. I thank the organizers and participants who made these rewarding events for me.

The NEH Summer Seminar "Ethnic Diversity in China" at the East-West Center in Hawaii in 1996 pushed me to work out and start writing my final version. I thank organizers Dru Gladney and Prasenjit Duara and the other participants for creating a stimulating environment in which I was finally able to link my ideas and my research.

More than anyone else, the members of my dissertation committee have been great teachers at Indiana University and have given me crucial feedback during the writing process. They struggled through my chaotic first draft, and their critical readings caught an embarassing number of mistakes and helped me move towards reducing my theoretical baggage so that the people and sources I worked with could speak more directly in this dissertation. Henry Glassie, Richard Bauman, M. Nazif Shahrani and Sue Tuohy have my deep gratitude for their many different contributions to my research, thinking and writing.

In addition to my committee, Devin DeWeese taught me the basics of documentary research in Central Asia, and inspired me with his scholarly excellence, generous advice and sharing of sources. Uli Schamiloglu, Elliot Sperling, David Tyson, Bill Wood, Will Dirks, Sasha Naymark, Liz Constantine, Jason BeDuhn, Zsuzsa Gulacsi, and Chris Atwood all helped me make sense of Central Asia and China and shared important materials with me. In my footnotes I credit the particular contributions of the many other people who helped me in my research.

Many other teachers, friends and colleagues at Indiana University and elsewhere have stimulated my ideas and prevented me and them from being lost in work. They include Michael Jackson, Greg Schrempp, Sylvia Wing Önder, Ilana Harlow, Tom Ardito, Arienne Dwyer, Arzu Öztürkmen, Harry Berger, Leslie Bloom, Jeff Cohen and Maria Green. I treasure the friendship of Susan Larkin and Su Shihua, Du Wei and Wang Hong, Cathy McAleer, and Chen Yea-fen, all of whom helped Lynne and I bridge the distance between China and Indiana University.

Finally I thank my family for all they have done for me. Julia has finally relented in her demand that I not turn the dissertation in until she can proofread it, and has even told me to get to work on it. Lynne not only survived fieldwork in China, but thrived and made it fun. Her sense of humor and openness to people won her--and by association, me--many friends in Ürümchi.

My mother has made me deeply aware of the importance of convictions, courage and wonder. Midway through my year of fieldwork she took Lynne and I on a memorable bicycling and hiking adventure in southern China that added greatly to my understanding of China. My father taught me intellectual persistence, to value broad knowledge and to make things connect, and he keeps asking me when he can read this. I can finally say, "Now." Gloria, Theo, Allison, David, Ron, Janet, and Alan have all supported me and kept the faith. I thank you all deeply.

Preface

In working with many different sources in different languages and scripts I have tried to spell most words consistently. Nonetheless linguistic variation is an integral part of the subject that I explore, and I cannot use a single spelling system. The following general rules for transliteration should keep things somewhat recognizable. Since I evolved towards this system over the course of my work, pockets of inconsistency may still be found.

Türk refers to the people who ruled much of Central Asia in two empires and a number of other polities between 552 and 740 C.E. Turkic refers to people whose language and culture is closely related to the original Türks, many of whom have described their language for over a millenium as Türki. "Uighur" refers to the Turkic people who identified themselves with that name before around 1500, while "Uyghur" refers to the people who in the 1920s and 30s came to consider themselves identified by that name.

To make things easier to read, in spelling names of people and places I use common English equivalents for consonants that in other words and transcriptions I spell with diacritics: e.g., Abdushukur Turdi, Kashghar. In bibliographic citations from Uyghur I use diacritics to keep citations consistent: e.g., Abdushukur Turdi, Qäshqär Uyghur näshriyati. Names that I transcribe from Arabic script sources in one form, I try to keep in that form unless quoting directly from a Uyghur source where the spelling is different: e.g., Abd ar-Rashîd Khân and Abduräshid Khan. Most place names and some personal names I keep the same. Mashrab is the same word as mäshräp, but I use the first as the name of the poet, and the second as the name of a celebration and kind of music.

I do not use diacritics for Arabic consonants, but I try to indicate long vowels. This is the source of great inconsistency in my transcriptions, since I am transcribing Turkic words as well in which long vowels matter less than back and front (ümlaut) vowels. What I show depends on my original sources and whether I deem it more important to show how vowels would be pronounced in Turkic, or how they were spelled in Arabic script. Many of the sources that I use are transliterations into modern Uyghur, Uzbek and Turkish that do not preserve indicate long vowels consistently. I generally point out my reasons for a particular style of transliteration in the text.

In transliterations of modern Uyghur written and oral texts I maintain original sounds or spelling, but in translations I make names and words fit a standard Uyghur, Arabic, Persian, or Chinese spelling as appropriate: e.g., samâ, âshiq. In citations I keep the spelling exactly as in the original, even when an author changes the spelling of his or her name.

In the names of the muqams and their parts, I use diacritics but ordinary type for the names of the twelve muqams and the three sections: e.g., Ushshaq Muqam, Chong Naghmä Section. I italicize and use lower case for the names of the songs in each section: e.g., Mushavräk Muqam täzä. For the names of musical instruments I use italics when I first introduce the name, and then refer to it in plain type. I always use the dominant Uyghur spelling: e.g., satar, rewap, tämbur. Titles I have transcribed as in Arabic script or as in modern Uyghur: e.g., Khân and Akhun. All other unfamiliar words I italicize for every use.

Political and geographic concepts are particularly treacherous. I always include Eastern Turkistan in Central Asia because of the extensive cultural connections. Xinjiang ("New Territory"), of course, is the modern Sinocentric political term that includes areas that have been variously known as Eastern Turkistan, Moghulistan, Alti Shahr, Little Bukhara, the Tarim Basin, Jungaria, or the Western Regions (Xiyü). I use whichever terms are appropriate for the period to which I refer, although I find that purely geographic terms are easiest to use without political difficulties. Any term that identifies a geographic area by reference to cultural and political occupation is necessarily contentious since territory is so basic to the "modern" way of thinking about nation-states. The Xinjiang region has always had many different cultural groups in different areas, and carving out ethnic enclaves through nomenclature and political structure has not changed the basic fact that this is a multi- cultural society.

I give common era (C.E.) dates unless otherwise indicated. When I give a single C.E. year corresponding to a Hijra date (A.H.), it is the year in which the A.H. year began.

In the past forty years the fluid Uyghur muqam song tradition has been transformed into a cultural canon used to represent the Uyghur ethnic group within China and on the world stage. Traditional muqam performers have provided the magma of songs that scholars and politicians have edited into an invented "great tradition" which supports a Uyghur claim to an important piece world cultural history. The canonized Twelve Muqam tradition conforms to the international cultural logic of European modernity as it has been interpreted in China, and are now known as Uyghur khälq kilassik muzika (Uyghur folk classical music).

I compare the adoption of the ideology of European modernity to the Turkic conversion to Islam, and consider the cultural representations that accompany these ideological transitions. The Uyghur Muqam cultural canon formed in response to modernity's demand that ethnic identities be closely tied to distinctive shared cultural forms and cultural histories. Likewise, when the Islamization of the Turks began a millenium ago, the Turkic lexicographer Mahmûd al-Kâshghari created a canon of pure Turk culture and the poets Yûsuf Khâss Hâjib and Ahmad Yüknäki attempted to found a didactic Turko-Islamic literary tradition based in oral Turkic genres. My analysis compares how these and other Turkic literary compositions resolved conflicts around cultural identities within the complex historical contexts of Central Asia. I treat these literary forms as contextualized performances and show how their authors used oral elements to accomplish their ideological goals.

The following abbreviations are for sources and texts that I cite often, and for commonly used names and phrases in citations. I include brief descriptions of sources from China that are otherwise little known.

Journals, Series, and Publication Abbreviations:

AA = Acta Asiatica

AEMA = Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi

AFS = Asian Folklore Studies

AM = Asian Music

AOH = Acta orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae

ARA = Annual Review of Anthropology

BSOAS = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

Bulaq = Bulaq: Uyghur kilassik ädibiyati mäjmu'äsi (Ürümchi: ShKhN, 1980-)

CAJ = Central Asiatic Journal

CAS = Central Asian Survey

EM = Ethnomusicology

FFC = Folklore Fellows Communications

IJMES = International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies

JA = Journal Asiatique

JAF = Journal of American Folklore

JAOS = Journal of the American Oriental Society

JAS = Journal of Asian Studies

JFR = Journal of Folklore Research

JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland

JRASB = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal

JTS = Journal of Turkish Studies

LUA = Lunds Universitets Arsskrift

MRDTB = Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko

MS = Monumenta Serica

MSOS = Mitteilungen des Seminars fur Orientalishe Sprache

MT = Materialia Turcica

PIAC = Permanent International Altaistic Conference

RIFIAS = Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Bloomington

RO = Rocznik orientalistyczny

SI = Studia Islamica

ST = Sovietskaia Tiurkologia

StT = Studia Turcica

ShKhN = Shinjang khälq näshriyati (Xinjiang People's Press)

TP = T'oung Pao

UAJ = Ural-Altaische Jahrbucher

UAS = Uralic and Altaic Series, Indiana University Publications

UP = University Press

Reference works, texts, editions of muqam poetry, and fieldnote abbreviations:

AHb = Ädib Äkhmät binni Mäkhmut Yuknäki, Ätäbätulhäqayiq. Khämit Tomur, Tursun Ayup, editors. Beijing: Millätlär Näshriyati, 1980.

AN1987-1990 = Mîr Alî Shîr Navâ'î, Mukammal asarlar toplimi, 6 vols. Tashkent: Fan, 1987-1990. I was only able to use the first six volumes.

BÄ1970 = Batur Ärshidinov, On ikki muqam (tekstliri). Almuta: Zhazushy, 1970. [The texts of recordings by Turdi Akhun, probably originally transcribed and edited by Mavlana Ärmiya Äli Sayrami.]

BÄ1987 = Batur Ärshidinov, On ikki muqam. Almuta: Zhazushy, 1987. [The texts from the recordings of the Ili Muqam performers.]

BM1990 = Boborahim Mashrab, Mehribonim qaydasan, J. Yusupov, et al., eds. Tashkent: Ghafur Ghulom, 1990.

Bombaci, 1968 = Alessio Bombaci, Histoire de la littérature Turque, I. Mélikoff, trans. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1968.

BQ = Bilgä Qaghan inscription, cited from Tekin.

Budag. = L. Budagov, Sravnitel'nyi slovar' Turetsko- Tatarskix narechie. 2 vols. Moscow: Izd. vost. lit., 1960 [1869].

CHC = Cambridge History of China.

CHEIA = Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Denis Sinor, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

CHI = Cambridge History of Iran.

DLT = Mahmûd al-Kâshghârî, Türk Shiveleri Lügati (Dîvânü Lughât-it-Türk). Compendium of Turkic Dialects. Robert Dankoff, James Kelly, trans. and ed. Sources of Oriental Languages and Literatures. Turkish Sources, 7. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Printing Office, 1982, 3 vols.

EDPT = Sir Gerard Clauson, An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-Thirteenth Century Turkish, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972.

EI1 = Encyclopaedia Islamica. First Edition, 1913-1936.

EI2 = Encyclopaedia Islamica. Second Edition, 1960-.

EIr = Encyclopaedia Iranica, E. Yarshater, ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1989-.

Esin = Emel Esin, A history of pre-Islamic and early- Islamic Turkish culture. Istanbul: Unal Matbaasi, 1980.

F = fieldnotes, cited by date.

Hms = Ürümchi manuscript version of Ili muqam texts from ca. 1969.

IHTP = Peter Golden, An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1992.

Jarring 1964 = An Eastern Turki-English Dialect Dictionary, LUA, Avd. 1, Bd. 56, Nr. 4. CWK Gleerup, Lund, 1964.

KT = Kül Tegin inscription, cited from Tekin.

ME1986-MG1991 = Oliograph muqam texts from the Muqam Ensemble (Shinjang Muqam Ansambili), variously dated 1986 to 1991.

MG1981-MG1990 = Oliograph muqam texts from the Muqam Group (Shinjang Uyghur Aptonom Rayonluq Opira Ömigi Muqam Guruppisi), variously dated 1981 to 1990.

ML = Mîr Alî Shîr, Muhâkamat al- Lughatain, introduction, translation and notes by Robert Devereux. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1966.

MQ = Alîshîr Navâ'i, Mahbûb ul- qulûb, (Alisher Navoi, Vozliublënnyi Serdets), A. N. Kononov, ed. Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1948.

MRO1981-MRO1990 = Oliograph muqam texts from the Muqam Research Office (Muqam Tätqiqat Ishkhanisi), variously dated 1981 to 1990.

Muginov = Abdulladzhan Muginovich Muginov, Opisanie uigurskikh rukopisei Instituta narodov Azii. Moscow: 1962.

Najip = Ämir Näjib [E. N. Nadzhip], comp., Uyghurchä-Ruschä lughät; Uigursko-Russkii slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, 1968.

PhTF = Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta. vol. 2. Jean Deny et al, eds. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1964.

QB = Yusup Khas Hajip [Yûsuf Khâss Hâjib], Qutadgu bilik, Abdurehim Otkur, et al, eds., Beijing: Millätlät näshriyati, 1984. [Parallel text edition of original in phonetic transcription, with modern Uyghur translation.]

QB1986 = 12 Muqam Tekistliri. Qurban Barat, ed. Ürümchi: Shinjang yashlar-ösmürlär näshriyati, 1986. [The texts of recordings by Turdi Akhun, probably originally transcribed and edited by Mavlana Ärmiya Äli Sayrami, but different than those published in BÄ1970.]

Qms = Ürümchi manuscript version of Ili muqam texts from late 1960s.

QUTL = Qadimki Uyghur tili lughiti, Ghojakhun Khudavärdi, ed. Ürümchi: Shinjang yashlar-ösmürlär nashriyati, 1989.

S = F. Steingass, A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary. New Delhi, 1981.

Schimmel = Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.

St. John = Danyel Sinjon, Uyghurchä-Inglizchä lughät. Ürümchi: ShKhN, 1993.

Storey/Bregel = Ch. A. Storey. Persian Literature; A Bio- Biographical Survey, in three parts. Translated into Russian and revised with additions and corrections by Yu. E. Bregel. Part I: Qur'anic Literature, General History, The Prophets and Early Islam. Moscow: Glavnaia Redaktsiia Vostochnoi Literatury, 1972. Three volumes.

T = tape-recorded interview transcriptions.

TE1982 = Älishir Navayi, Ghäzällär, Teyipjan Eliyop, ed. Ürümchi: ShKhN, 1982.

Tekin = Talat Tekin. A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic. UAS vol. 69. Bloomington: Indiana University, 1968, 262.

TLBS = H. F. Hofman, Turkish literature. A bio- bibliographical survey. Section III. Moslim Central Asian Turkish literature being in the main a list of 'Chaghatayan' authors and works in 'Chaghatay' as registered in Professor M.F. Köprülü's article: Chagatay edebïyatï, A. vol. III (270-) (with some additions, Navâ'îâna, however, excepted). 6 vols. bound as 2. Utrecht: Library of the University of Utrecht, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1969.

TM = Molla Ismätulla binni Molla Nemätulla Mojiz, Tävarikhi musiqiyun, Änvär Baytur and Khämit Tömür, eds. Beijing: Millätlär näshriyati, 1982.

Tonyuquq = Tonyuquq inscription, cited from Tekin.

TTD = Mahmûd al-Kâshghârî, Türki Tillar Divani, Ibrahim Muti'i, Imin Tursun, et al., eds. Ürümchi: ShKhN, 1981-1984, 3 vols.

UHL = Uyghurchä-Hänzüchä lughät, Ürümchi: ShKhN, 1982.

UKÄQS = Uyghur Kilassik Ädibiyatidin qisqichä sözlük, Ghulam Ghopuri, et al, eds. Beijing: Millätlär näshriyati, 1986.

Wehr = Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, J. Milton Cowan, ed. Third Edition. Ithaca, New York: Spoken Language Services, 1976 [1971].